Tensile Hair Strengh

Once the hair had been rated or not it was then carefully placed in a sticky note to be wrapped up, making sure not to twist or bend the hair. Weights were then hung of the hair to test the strength of each, once snapped the amount they could hold was recorded. Null hypothesis: Hypothesis: There is a significant positive correlation between the strength of hair that has been heated and the strength of hair once it has been conditioned. Research: Human hair is a natural fiber that is made up largely of a protein called keratin, 80% of hair is formed by this protein.Keratin contains a high concentration of sulfur which is produced from the amino acid Sistine. Rationale: Many women and some men are obsessed with hair care routines and mirroring sleek shiny hair styles like celebrities. The fixation with malignantly shiny hair and being able to alternate between styles has had a massive effect on the cosmetic Industry. With a number of people using straightness, curling Irons or hairdrye rs dally many cosmetic companies such as Tiresome and Pentane have benefited from creating products that help create this look and malting healthy hair.Although the companies claim that these products work this Investigation will look Into whether or to the products actually help maintain strong healthy hair or if once the hair has Variables: Independent variables: * If the hair is treated with conditioner or not – controlled by making sure to separate the treated group from the untreated group and not containment. Dependent variables: * The size of weight – controlled by using the same size weights each time (each weight was log) and making leg weights to make it more precise. To make the leg weights they were measured on a scale that was accurate to 0. 1 g Control variables: * Amount of time in oven – controlled by using a stopwatch to be sure that the hair as heated for a precise amount of time * Amount of time in conditioner – controlled by using a ti mer, didn't want one strand of hair receiving longer time in treatment than others as may cause an anomaly if one hair was stronger than the other * The person who's hair was used – controlled by using the hair from the same person, also making sure the hair hadn't come to any previous damage from dying the hair or daily usage of heat appliances.Preliminary work: For the preliminary investigation I started by gathering my samples of hair from the bottom of the scalp at the very back of the hair. The hair had been washed the night before to ensure that any dirt or hair oil had been washed out, however conditioner had not been used. Once the hair had been removed I measured each length along a ruler to make sure each was the same length, each piece of hair was then cut to CACM long. To make sure my results were more reliable the hair was also cut from the bottom of the strand so that all the hair was the same and because the bottom of the hair was already weak this was cut off. In total I had 20 pieces of hair each cut to CACM. Once this process was complete I divided the hair into two groups . Hair that would be heated – this was marked by a section of the paper it was laid out on having an orange mark. Paper it was laid out on having a red mark. After being divided into the two different groups I heated both groups with hair straightness (GAD). The ceramic plates heat up to 204. 4 degrees Celsius, although the straightness get extremely hot I realized there was room for human error.The length of time that the straightness spent on the strand of hair could differ between each length and on each section of the hair due to the time that the straightened was pulled along. Due to there being a high percentage of human error I used a different technique to heat up the hair to eradicate it. Instead of heating the hair with straightness I decided the best way to get the same heat across the whole length of hair and all the strands of hair was to heat them in the oven.I set the oven temperature to 205 degrees Just slightly higher than the God's, once the oven was heated to the temperature set I quickly put the strands of hair into the oven trying to decrease the time the oven door was open and so decreasing the amount of heat that the oven lost. After timing the hair in the oven for 2 minutes I took the hair out and started to test the strength of the hair against results I had taken previously from hair that hadn't been heated to make sure that there was some change when heated. The results hadn't changed much and so I decided to heat the hair for five minutes.Once the hair was heated for five minutes I divided the two groups. Once separated into two groups the hair was laid on separate pieces of paper each color coded to ensure I didn't mix the ones that would be treated and the ones that wouldn't. I then kook all the strands from group two and using my fingers coated them in conditioner. Improvements: The advantage of doing a prel iminary test enabled me to assess any errors that could implement the final results and also to check if the methodology I was using would be suitable for this investigation.The hair had originally been heated by using hair straightens however there was considerable room for human error due to how long each strand of hair was in contact with the irons. The improvements made on heating the hair was to heat them collectively in the oven, the time they were kept in he oven was also tested during the preliminary to ensure they received the same amount of heat as a strand of hair would when being treated with a heat appliance.

Project Management Comparison of Prince2 and Pmbok

MSC756 PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASSIGNMENT TWO THE PRINCE2 METHODOLOGY: A DETAILED COMPARISON OF RELATIVE STRENGTHS TO THE PMBOK AND APPLICATION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT AUTHOR: KANE WRIGHT STUDENT: 400072002 WORD COUNT (LESS TABLE OF CONTENTS, REFERENCES, APPENDICES): 4972 DUE DATE: 28 SEPTEMBER 2009 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION________________________________________________ _____________3 LITERATURE REVIEW______________________________________________________ _3 Background__________________________________________________ _______________3 Methodology_________________________________________________ _________________3 Components__________________________________________________ ________________4 Processes___________________________________________________ __________________5 Implementing PRINCE2_____________________________________________________ ___7 ANALYTICAL DISCUSSION__________________________________________________ _7 Comparison__________________________________________________ __ _____________7 Contrast____________________________________________________ _________________8 Strengths___________________________________________________ __________________9 Weaknesses__________________________________________________ ________________12 Recommendation – The Application of PRINCE2 and PMBoK in Combination_________13 AUTHOR’S REFLECTION__________________________________________________ __14 CONCLUSION__________________________________________________ ___________14 REFERENCES__________________________________________________ ____________16 APPENDIX 1 – PRINCE2 PROCESS MODEL____________________________________18 APPENDIX 2 – PMBOK KNOWLEDGE AREAS AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES___________________________________________________ _____________19 APPENDIX 3 – PRINCE2 METHODOLOGY BENEFITS FOR BUSINESSES_________20 â€Å"PRINCE2 is extensively used in over 150 countries around the world and its take up grows daily. It is widely considered as the leading tool in project management, with over 20,000 organisations already benefiting from its pioneering and trusted approach† – Nigel Smith, Chief Executive, Office of Government Commerce (OGC), United Kingdom (Science Letter 2009) INTRODUCTION Through it’s evolution over the past three decades, the Project Management Institute’s (PMI) Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK) has become clearly established as the leading methodology for the understanding, analysis and execution of project management globally. The increasing need for, and implementation of, project management practices within private and public sector organisations concurrently however, has resulted in the emergence of alternate project management methodologies and frameworks. As an alternative option available to Project Managers, the Projects in Controlled Environments (PRINCE) methodology has gained significant attention and increased favour for implementation by organisations globally. This report has been prepared to describe in detail the PRINCE methodology, comparing its features and processes against those of the PMBoK, and analysing its relative strengths and weaknesses. This report will detail the benefits available to organisations in the application of the PRINCE methodology, how this tool can effectively and efficiently be employed for project management and recommendations for how organisations can tailor the methodology to maximise their chances for project success. LITERATURE REVIEW BACKGROUND The PRINCE methodology for project management was first developed in 1989 by the UK Computer and Telecommunications Agency. This governmental agency, now part of the Office of Government Commerce (OGC), originally developed PRINCE for application in government IT projects (Langley 2006 p30). The methodology was further revised and refined in 1996 by a consortium of 150 public and private sector organisations. The revision resulted in the creation of PRINCE2; a methodology with a much broader application to any and all projects, not just IT projects (Langley, 2003, p50). PRINCE2 has since gone through a number of revisions, the most recent of which is PRINCE2 2009 (Science Letter 2009). This methodology has received increased international interest and attention since it’s inception; and has now experienced widespread application across private sector, to become the accepted standard methodology for project management within the UK. METHODOLOGY – WHAT IS PRINCE2? As a practical tool of public domain, originally developed by government for project management, limited literature exists on the methodological description of PRINCE2’s structure, processes and application. A number of UK governmental publications and Project Management Professionals (PMPs) however, have developed summaries and guides to the method which explain the purpose and structure of PRINCE2. Birlouez (2009) draws directly from the PRINCE2 guide to describe the methodology as a â€Å"process-based approach for project management†. It is designed to be a structured method that the Project Manager can apply to guide the processes and procedures applicable to all projects. COMPONENTS The OGC have structured the PRINCE2 methodology to address eight core ‘components’ of project management (ILX Group 2009). The Business Case The business case provides the driving force within PRINCE2 from the inception of, and throughout, the project lifecycle. As Wideman (2002) highlights, the business case â€Å"justifies the undertaking of the project in terms of reasons, benefits, cost, time and risk†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and is the base document that shapes the suitability of a project for acceptance. Academics agree (Birlouez 2009, Siegelaub 2006) that the business case remains relevant throughout the project lifecycle and ultimately determines whether, through a change to feasibility of the business case at a certain point, the project should be terminated. Organisation PRINCE2 advocates a clear definition of the project organisation structure, to provide the Project Manager with the staff and resources to efficiently and effectively complete the project. Plans Planning is a core concept emphasised within PRINCE2, providing a focus for the outputs and products to be delivered at various stages in the product lifecycle (Wideman 2002) and ensuring that plans are developed and executed not only at the strategic level but also down to the lower (team) levels (ILX Group 2009). Product-based planning is the key PRINCE2 technique with which to achieve this and represents the first of three techniques available to project managers in using PRINCE2 (Birlouez 2009). Controls Siegelaub (2006) has described the ‘controls’ component of PRINCE2 as an area targeted to assist decision making. He identifies that the implementation of project control measures ensures: †¢ products generated meet defined acceptance criteria, †¢ the project is being completed in accordance with time/schedule, cost and resource plans, †¢ throughout the project lifecycle, the project and it’s associated Business Case remain viable, and †¢ the project is conducted within an acceptable level of risk. Control of technical work within PRINCE2 is achieved through the authorisation of work packages allocated against individuals or teams. These packages are measured against time, cost and quality requirements with responsible agents required to report back against these through identified checkpoints and triggers (Wideman 2009). Management of Risk Due to the unpredictable nature of project management and it’s susceptibility to the influence of environment variables, PRINCE2 advocates the employment of risk management to contain and minimise risk. PRINCE2 offers a risk log and scoring system to facilitate this requirement (ILX Group 2009). Quality in a Project Environment Time and cost targets represent only one part of successful project delivery. Quality is a critical factor in meeting customer requirements and ensuring project performance is achieved. PRINCE2 employs ‘Product Descriptions’ to establish the minimum standards for project deliverables. Quality reviews then represent the second technique available for successful project management (Birlouez 2009), as a measure for comparison of planned versus actual performance. Configuration Management Configuration Management is closely linked to quality within PRINCE2 in that it provides the means for monitoring and managing project deliverables, hence enhancing the project management team’s control over the project’s assets and products. Change Control PRINCE2 identifies the requirement for a means of assessing scope changes, their impact on project inputs, requirements and outputs, and most importantly, their impact on the Business Case. This component permits project managers to make informed decisions on the relative value of scope changes; and through the series of detailed change control techniques, processes and requests offered by PRINCE2 (ILX Group 2009), determine whether to include them. Change control is the third and final technique available to PRINCE2 practitioners. PROCESSES Within the context of the key components highlighted previously, PRINCE2 identifies a ‘stage’ process for the conduct and management of a project, similar to the phases espoused by the PMBoK. These stages focus specifically on the execution of a project, and do not cover in detail the associated preliminary project management activities associated with ‘soft’ project management functions like staffing or procurement. Appendix 1 is the PRINCE2 Process Model, which provides a graphical representation of the processes involved in delivering a project. These processes can be viewed as a structured checklist of how organisations can effectively manage a project. Start-up Starting up a Project is the preliminary step in conducting any project, to enable the fundamental activities required to assess project oversight and viability. The stage involves the appointment of project key and team staff and preparation of the project brief, stage plan and the initial (outline) business case (ILX Group 2009) This stage also identifies the Acceptance Criteria for the project, a unique management product that defines measurable requirements of the project (Wideman 2009) Initiation The project initiation stage directly follows project start-up and is predicated on authority to initiate. This stage provides the tools for the holistic development of the Project Plan and through PRINCE2’s Project Initiation Document (PID), provides an overview of the critical elements to the project (Siegelaub 2009)(including the Risk, Configuration, Quality and Communication Management Strategies (ILX Group 2009)). Directing a project The directing stage is a continuous stage which runs throughout the lifecycle of a project. This process is inter-related with all other processes and provides the framework for the decisions required of the Project Board and Project Manager in authorizing and directing the conduct of, and progression between, all the other PRINCE2 processes. Controlling a stage Controlling a stage incorporates key activities that guide how the Project Manager manages the specific activities of the project. Through configuration management and change control (Wideman 2002) this stage focuses on the authorisation, assignment and review of work packages, issue and change management and corrective action to ensure each project stage remains aligned with project objectives and targets. Managing product delivery The product delivery stage focuses specifically on the execution of the technical requirements of the project. It addresses the work that is to be performed, how it is executed and the delivery of the final outputs on completion. Siegelaub (2009) highlights that the activities within this stage constitute part of PRINCE2’s Work Authorisation System. Managing stage boundaries This stage provides the guidance for the Project Manager on how to effectively transition between completion of one project stage and commencement of the next, including review and update to the Project Plan and Business Case (ILX Group 2009). This stage is closely linked to the ‘Directing a Project’ stage, as it provides the input to the Project Board at stage completion for decision on ongoing project viability, and develops the plan for subsequent work stages. Closing a project The closing stage of a project effectively terminates the project and transitions responsibility back to the organisation. Termination can be initiated due either to completion of work, or through premature termination, where project viability is no longer apparent (Siegelaub 2009). This stage includes the capture and evaluation of ‘lessons learned’ for organisational learning and final closure of all project activities. Planning Appendix 1 does not reflect ‘Planning’ within the PRINCE2 Process Model, as this stage (much like the Directing a Project stage), is an over-arching activity that spans the entire lifecycle of the project and is continuous across all stages. Planning identifies the project’s deliverables and the associated resources and activities to create them. Planning is closely aligned with all stages, particularly the ‘Initiation’ stage, as detailed planning must be consistent with the control requirements of the PID (Siegelaub 2009). IMPLEMENTING PRINCE2 PRINCE2 identifies that any product will have a lifespan of five phases. Of these phases (Conception, Feasibility, Implementation, Operation and Termination), PRINCE2’s methodology and process model specifically operate within the Implementation phase of the product lifecycle. From this application, it can be seen that PRINCE2 is therefore an ‘implementation methodology’ as opposed to a more encompassing and holistic project management methodology (Wideman 2002). ANALYTICAL DISCUSSION COMPARISON In order to highlight the differences that exist between PRINCE2 and PMBoK, t is necessary first to draw comparison between the two methodologies. PMBoKs processes are effectively building blocks, each of which can be categorized into a Process Group and Knowledge Area (Birlouez 2009). Appendix 2 provides an overview of the Project Management Knowledge Areas and processes espoused by the PMBoK. The major knowledge areas are: †¢ Project Integration Management †¢ P roject Scope Management †¢ Project Time Management †¢ Project Cost Management †¢ Project Quality Management †¢ Project Human Resource Management Project Communication Management †¢ Project Risk Management †¢ Project Procurement Management The Project Integration Management area acts as a lynchpin for the PMBoK, linking all other areas. Birlouez (2009) uses the development of the Project Management Plan as an example for this, as this document will incorporate all plans from the other knowledge areas (Risk, Communication, Quality, etc). Conceptually, PRINCE2 components can be aligned with and compared against PMBoK Knowledge areas. Siegelaub (2002) has tabulated this comparison: PMBoK Knowledge Area |PRINCE2 Components | |Integration Management |All processes/components combined | | |Change Control | |Scope Management |Business Case | |Time Management |Plans | |Cost Management | |Quality Management |Quality | | |Configuration Management | |Risk Mana gement |Risk | |Communication Management |Controls | |Human Resource Management |Organisation (to a limited extent) | |Procurement Management | | It is easy to observe then the similarities between the critical concepts addressed by each methodology. The application of PRINCE2 to project management however, differs in scope from the PMBoK. From the outset, PRINCE2 does not claim to comprehensively cover the subject of project management. Rather, it is a methodology that is based on the principles of the PMBoK. Siegelaub (2006) highlights that PMBoK: â€Å"specifically calls on the practitioner to apply a project management methodology (as a tool/technique), and PRINCE2 provides one. Viergever (2009) supports this argument, suggesting that PMBoK provides the framework, where PRINCE2 provides the method. CONTRAST Academic opinion (Birlouez 2009, Siegelaub 2006, Viergever 2009, Wideman 2002) generally prescribes that the PMBoK and PRINCE2 serve different purposes and are not easily comparable. Where PMBoK provides a comprehensive means for teaching the subject of each knowledge area of project management as a discipline, PRINCE2 provides a more detailed approach for the running of a particular project. When examining the process side of project management, PMBoK tends to focus on higher-level descriptions rather than a detailed explanation of processes. PRINCE2 by contrast offers a more detailed explanation of the processes (Viergever 2009). Several authors (Webber 2009, Van Bon 2006) have highlighted PRINCE2’s level of detail within project processes as a major advantage over PMBoK. Assessment from various PMPs and methodology description within the PRINCE2 guide advocate an extensive list of strengths for PRINCE2; as both a stand-alone methodology and in comparison to the PMBoK. Major strengths of the methodology based on public and private sector application have been grouped together into the following areas. STRENGTHS Methodology structure The detailed process model that PRINCE2 offers provides a controlled start, progress and close to projects. The structure of the methodology provides a standardised process for project completion that permits consistency between projects within an organisation. It also provides a framework for delegation and communication, and stipulates points for review and flexible decision points against the project plan, business case and risks (Ruleworks, 2009). The processes within permit a stage-by-stage breakdown of work requirements for project managers that goes into greater detail than the five project phases espoused by the PMBoK (Initiating, Planning, Executing, Controlling and Monitoring, Closing (IT Governance Ltd 2009)), effectively providing a ‘checklist’ for project managers; however as a generic methodology remain flexible enough that activities can be tailored to suit the organisation and project (and do not all require rigid application to all projects). The methodology is supported by a well-defined set of progressive documentation requirements that provide an easy guide to assist the project team. Thirty-three standard management ‘products’ are available to PRINCE2 practitioners as templates which can be employed as key outputs across the multiple stages (Wideman 2002). The Business Case and Project Brief provide uidance on viability during the start-up phase that is not recognized by the PMBoK, wh ile the PID offers the detailed description of how the project is to be executed. Although the PMBoK has an equivalent document (the Project Charter) the requirement for a substantiated Business Case does not serve as a prerequisite. This ‘commercial-off-the shelf’ (COTS) methodology is favoured amongst many organisations globally, as it provides significant cost and time savings (in multiple months and thousands of man-hours), compared to the decision to develop and launch a unique methodology for a business and educate staff in its application (Kippenberger 2009). Further benefits to business that the methodology’s structure offers are listed at appendix 3. Project organisation and assignment of responsibilities Another strength of PRINCE2 is its identification of management roles rather than jobs, which can then be allocated amongst organisational staff to suit the organisation. PRINCE2 goes beyond the PMBoK identification of a ‘Project Sponsor’ to highlight the benefits of using a ‘Project Board’ (a team of senior executives that provide oversight for the project and grant authority to the Project Manager through commitment of resources (Siegelaub 2006)). Although not a mandated requirement of PRINCE2, the Project Board is a function which can facilitate greater project ownership from key stakeholders. Representation will ordinarily be provided on the board through appropriate senior members from the business (usually the Senior Executive), the user organisation and the supplier. Presence of a Senior User ensures that customer specifications for a project are adhered to at various review points in the project lifecycle, while the Senior Supplier represents the interests of the team/s designing, developing and implementing the project, to ensure appropriate resources are committed and quality maintained (Wideman 2002). The importance of the customer/supplier environment that PRINCE2 espouses cannot be overemphasised. In a case study of four interactive media companies trialing the use of PRINCE2, England (2006) identified that wareness of project management practices on both user and supplier sides of any project was essential to facilitating effective project management and in managing stakeholder perceptions and expectations. Companies that achieved this when implementing PRINCE2 had improved communication and smoother reporting. PRINCE2 also advocates defined roles for project assurance and a configuration librarian, support roles that ensure all interests of a project are served and project and management documentation is maintained and accessible. Business case based decision making PRINCE2’s use of defined ‘go/no-go’ criteria for evaluating a business case by a project board provides an initial stage-gate check for project viability, significantly enhancing the chances of project success. As part of PRINCE2’s processes, the project start-up stage assigns responsibility to a project owner for preparation of the business case. Ownership of the business case encourages the person/s assigned to put sufficient rigour into the business case for approval (thus reducing the likelihood for ill-planned projects to be approved). In a review of one Dutch bank using PRINCE2 for it’s project management, this process (requiring a detailed justification for business cases) resulted in 30% less projects approved for initiation. Further analysis of these figures confirmed that the reduction of project approvals was attributable to Business Case reviews that identified non-viable projects prior to initiation (Viergever 2009). Product based planning Practitioners generally concur on PRINCE2’s planning method as a major strength of it’s methodology. PRINCE2 expands upon PMBoKs use of a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) to incorporate detailed Product Descriptions into a Product Breakdown Structure (PBS). This inclusion for deliverables not only clarifies expectations of project teams and end-users to ensure that the output provided meets requirements, but also provides a baseline against which scope changes can be measured (Siegelaub 2008). This benefit has been espoused by a number of PMPs (England 2006, Tang 2008, Webber 2009). Wideman (2009) notes that this process can be applied to any project at any level for positive results. The PBS provides a far greater level of detail than the PMBoK WBS by demonstrating the links between products and their associated work activities in the Product Flow Diagram, which facilitates identification of the necessary activities to achieve the final outcome and the creation of associated Gantt charts. As the CEO of IT Governance Ltd (the most comprehensive publisher of governance, risk and compliance books and tools globally), Alan Calder has endorsed the PRINCE2 methodology’s product-based planning approach. In his article on IT Project Governance, Calder (year unknown) highlights that this approach does not simply plan when an activity will be conducted; it goes further to clarify the result that is required. Work Packages Siegelaub (2006) has identified PRINCE2’s use of Work Packages (the core element of the PRINCE2 work authorisation system) as a major gap in the PMBoK Project Management methodology that PRINCE2 fills. The Work Packages extensively define: the work to be performed through Product Descriptions, time, cost and resource constraints; techniques for the work to be performed; the review and submission process for the work and the procedures for issue reporting. Content can be tailored to the organisation and the type of project; and offers a more comprehensive method for defining work. This is one of the fundamental tools that demonstrate how PRINCE2 provides the ‘nuts and bolts’ method that the PMBoK’s framework does not describe in detail. Registers of Scotland Executive Agency (a land title registration agency) have implemented Work Packages as a key Project Management deliverable and have experienced greater awareness amongst managers of the detailed structure to their projects and control over the work being performed. Implementation of PRINCE2 within the organisation, specifically through the pplication of the PID, defined the boundaries of projects within and t he subsequent allocation of work packages significantly reduced scope creep amongst the company (Gardiner 2002). Change control and configuration management Until recently, change control and management was covered almost exclusively by PRINCE2. PMBoK 4th Edition has started to address this through it’s section on Integrated Change Control (Kerzner 2009 p 475) however this is not at the same level of maturity as PRINCE2’s configuration management and change control approach, as PMBoK identifies the requirement without detailing the means or process to achieve change control. PRINCE2 2009 continues to provide a more detailed change management process (Webber 2009). Work Package control in PRINCE2 is closely monitored through the checkpoints and reporting requirements stipulated in the methodology process (including Highlight Reports and Exception Reports) and the requirement to define tolerance levels, contingency plans and change control processes further aid configuration management (Wideman 2002), an area that the PMBoK lacks. ‘Directing the project’ across all phases PRINCE2’s thorough description of critical activities across processes facilitates a much more controlled project management process. Definition of how the project will handle exception situations, and the associated management actions required, as part of the PID during the ‘Start-up’ stage ensures key participants in the project have a clearly defined process to follow in escalating issues and taking corrective action. This, combined with the employment of Quality Reviews against project deliverables within PRINCE2, ensures that the Project Manager and Project Board can track project performance across all stages of the project. PRINCE2 offers a simple set of steps to guide how Quality Reviews are employed against these deliverables. Finally, PRINCE2 expands on the PMBoK’s reference to the requirement to manage issues, by providing a mechanism for conducting this: the Issue Log. The Issue Log provides a recommended format for tracking issues and identifies key points in the project lifecycle that issues should be identified, updated and reviewed (Siegelaub 2006). WEAKNESSES Despite the obvious strengths to the methodology, PRINCE2 as a project management tool in isolation is not an infallible methodology. The method is subject to several weaknesses. Application One of the basic weaknesses of PRINCE2, applicable across both Public and Private sectors, is the methodology complexity and range. A number of organisations are subject to implementing ‘PRINCE2 in name only’ (PINO), arbitrarily selecting various templates and products from the methodology without sufficient regard to the applicability to their projects, hence failing to effectively apply the processes. In these situations, the ‘document-centric’ nature of the methodology leads to the documents becoming ends in themselves instead of tools and products to assist the progress of the project (Project Management Australia 2009). When this occurs excess work may be generated for a project, which overshadows and detracts from the project itself. It must be highlighted however, that these particular shortcomings are failures of the practitioner rather than the methodology. Viergever (2009) supports this view, highlighting the propensity of the methodology to become mired in bureaucracy. Foremost, Viergever highlights culture as a reason for this. PRINCE2 assumes a customer/supplier environment, where both stakeholders have input to the requirements and management of the project. In a culture lacking this cooperation, the supplier ‘drives the ship’ and so much bureaucratic documentation is prepared without consideration for end user requirements. Secondary to, and supporting this, Viergever acknowledges that organisations have a tendency to apply all the templates and procedures described by PRINCE2. The methodology does not prescribe which of these are essential for different types of projects, therefore many organisations ‘over-prescribe’ and apply them all. The case of Suffolk County Council (SCC) is a good example where this ‘pitfall’ was experienced and rectified. After initial attempts to apply PRINCE2 for better management of public services were met with resistance (due to a perception of bureaucracy and over-prescription of practices), SCC tailored the system into a framework that suited them: PRINCE2 Suffolk Style (PRINCESS). Subsequently, the tailored approach provided the general guidance required by managers and employees to clarify role expectations and generic process to be followed, while scaling down the ‘reporting product’ requirements to better suit the organisation and it’s (comparatively simple) projects (Ling 2009). Poor definition of contracting and procurement Wideman (2002) illustrates a major weakness of the PRINCE2 methodology in the lack of strong detail during Project ‘Conception’. As the methodology largely focuses on the commencement of a project from ‘Start-up’ (or the ‘Implementation’ phase of the project lifecycle) little attention is paid to how the project may be run when conducted within a contract context; and scarce detail is provided on the procurement requirements applicable. Considered in isolation then, the PRINCE2 methodology lacks the detail on how to conduct these activities; a significant omission given the emphasis on sub-contracting project phases and elements in recent years. The PMBoK by contrast provides a dedicated chapter to procurement which provides guidance on these activities, including the actual procurement, pre-assignment or negotiation for project team members (ILX Group 2009). Lack of Human Resource focus PRINCE2 does not explore in significant detail the management issues associated with human resources (including team acquisition planning, training, team-building and recognition) despite the importance placed on human assets in various management disciplines (Webber 2009). Van Bon and Verheijen (2006) support this view, arguing that PRINCE2 lacks any real detail on the soft skills of Project Management, where PMBoK does address these issues through a detailed section human resource management. RECOMMENDATION – THE APPLICATION OF PRINCE2 AND PMBOK IN COMBINATION Notwithstanding the aforementioned weaknesses of PRINCE2, the methodology remains a very effective project management tool. Noting the obvious ‘conceptual’ areas that PRINCE2 fails to address in detail, these areas are captured and expanded upon in the PMBoK. Consideration must be given therefore, to the application of both methodologies in concert. Many academics emphasise how each methodology can be used to complement the other (Siegelaub 2006, Wideman 2009, Yeong 2007). PRINCE2’s lack of focus on Communications, Human Resource and Procurement Management are areas that are complemented by PMBoK. Alternatively, PRINCE2’s strengths in process and documentation, coupled with its business case approach, provide a stronger focus on the strategy aspects that PMBoK addresses only at higher levels. At the work unit level, the WBS of the PMBoK can be combined with PRINCE2’s PBS for a more comprehensive means of structuring project deliverables. Using PMBoK and PRINCE2 as an ‘integrative project management methodology’ (Yeong 2007) permits organisations to complement the strengths of each while mitigating their individual weaknesses. Ideally, the procedural and product concepts unique to PRINCE2 (Business Case, Project Boards, Issue Logs, Tolerance and Exception Plans, Configuration Management, etc) should be used to ‘flesh out’ and strengthen the PMBoK’s knowledge areas. The case of Getronics (a leading vendor of Information Communication and Technology solutions) provides an interesting example for the combination of both the PMBoK ‘framework’ and the PRINCE2 ‘method’. Following its adoption of PRINCE2, Getronics commenced a review of internal methodology to combine both methods. The company had drawn upon its PMP experience to apply the principles of Project Management advocated in the PMBoK; including project management ‘soft skills’ (communication management and people management) as well as other critical areas such as contract (procurement) management and the incorporation of an earned value system. Concurrently, Getronics grounded these aspects in a business case driven environment (one of the hallmarks of the PRINCE2 methodology), with a clearly defined process model for specific activities that were required throughout the project; and product based planning that was deliverables driven. This combination evolved into the Getronics Global Project Management Methodology and has been successfully applied by the company across 30 countries (APM Group 2003). At the individual level, the complementary nature of both methodologies means that the method-based certifications of PRINCE2 practitioners, combined with the PMI accreditation provided to PMPs, allows for a more ‘well-rounded’ PMP with a holistic understanding of Project Management. At the same time, these skillsets are complemented by technical skills for selecting and applying techniques. The combination makes for a more comprehensive approach that is easily obtained and adopted, based on public domain elements. Essentially, PRINCE2 can provide the depth the PMBoK lacks, while the PMBoK can address the broader elements of project scope not covered by PRINCE2. AUTHOR’S REFLECTION An obvious limitation of the research conducted within this report was the lack of quantitative data for analysis. Analysis of case studies is based largely on anecdotal evidence from participating organisations. Whilst the documentation available on PRINCE2’s application in business is not propagandistic, there is a notable prevalence of favourable literature and examples published, while examples of failed applications of PRINCE2 appear to be limited. Further quantitative analysis into unsuccessful trials of the methodology (incorporating productivity figures, schedule and cost variances) may provide an interesting counterpoint to the analysis conducted within this report. CONCLUSION As a project management methodology, PRINCE2 represents an alternative option to the PMBoK. PRINCE2 is a more detailed, process-based approach that provides thorough guidance on the management of a particular project. PMBoK by comparison is a more generic methodology that addresses the core knowledge areas of the project management discipline, establishing the framework within which PRINCE2 functions. PRINCE2 has a number of strengths that lie in its detailed processes, however the multiple products and deliverables that the methodology advocates can be incorrectly applied by practitioners if not appropriately adapted to suit the organisation. Despite the widespread support for this methodology across both public and private sector organisations, the methodology is not infallible. Through application in conjunction with the PMBoK however, the relative strengths of each methodology can be applied to counter and reduce the associated weaknesses of the other, for a combined and comprehensive project management methodology. Organisations that embrace the combination of these two approaches and careful application to their project environment are far more likely to experience effective project management and project success. REFERENCES †¢ APM Group 2003, PRINCE2 Case Study – PRINCE2 and PMI/PMBOK A Combined Approach at Getronics, ILX Group, retrieved 15 September 09 http://www. prince2. com/prince2-downloads. asp †¢ Birlouez, V 2009, PMBOK 4th Edition vs Prince 2: Comparison (Part 1), PMinFOCUS, retrieved 14 September 09 http://www. pminfocus. com/story/pmbok-4th-edition-vs-prince-2-comparison-part-1 Calder, A (Year unknown), IT Project Governance and PRINCE2 Project Management: How to Keep Major IT Investments on the Rails, Article Dashboard, retr ieved 15 Sep 09 www. articledashboard. com/Category/Business/54/pdate/asc/33 †¢ England, E 2006, Prince 2 Project Management and Interactive Media: Is there a fit? , ILX Group, retrieved 14 September 09 http://www. prince2. com/prince2-downloads. asp †¢ Gardiner A 2002, Registers of Scotland Executive Agency – Implementing PRINCE2 in a Business Change Environment, ILX Group, retrieved 14 September 09, http://www. prince2. com/prince2-downloads. asp †¢ ILX Group 2009, PRINCE2 Process Model, ILX Group Homepage, retrieved 15 September 09 http://www. prince2. com/prince2-downloads. asp IT Governance Ltd 2009, PMBOK ®Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The Project Management Body of Knowledge from PMI, IT Governance LTD, retrieved 14 September 09 http://www. itgovernance. co. uk/pmbok. aspx †¢ Kerzner, H 2009, Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling and Controlling, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, New Jersey. †¢ Kippenberger, T 2009, PRINCE2 Goes to China, Best M anagement Practice Homepage, retrieved 15 September 09, http://www. best-management-practices. com/Knowledge-Centre/Guest-Writer/PRINCE2-Managing-Successful-Programs-and-Management-of-Risk/? DI=571314 †¢ Langley, N 2003, ‘A Prince among project managers’, Computer Weekly, 24 June 2003, p50, retrieved 14 September 09, Business Source Complete Database. Langley, N 2006, ‘Make the most of project challenges with PRINCE2’, Computer Weekly, 29 August 2006, p30, retrieved 14 September 09, Business Source Complete Database. †¢ Ling, K 2009, Suffolk County Council – PRINCE2 2009 Pilot Case Study, ILX Group, retrieved 14 September 09 http://www. prince2. com/prince2-downloads. asp †¢ Project Management Australia 2009, PRINCE2 Weaknesses, Project Management Australia Homepage, retrieved 15 September 09 http://www. projectmanagement. net. au/prince2_weaknesses †¢ Ruleworks 2009, Benefits of PRINCE2, Ruleworks Knowledge Management, retrieved 15 September 09, http://www. ruleworks. co. uk/prince2/benefits. htm Science Letter 2009, ‘PRINCE2 2009 Launched’, Science Letter, 30 Jun 2009, retrieved 14 September 2009, Expanded Academic ASAP Database. †¢ Siegelaub, J 2006, How PRINCE2 Can Complement PMBOK and You PMP, PMI Global Congress Proceedings, Watermark Learning, retrieved 14 September 09 http://www. watermarklearning. com/enews/March08_Article. pdf †¢ Tang, Y 2008, Lecture – The Other Side of PRINCE2, delivered at the BCS Swindon Branch Meeting, Bryanbarrow. com, 25 September 08, retrieved 15 September 09 http://bryanbarrow. com/the-other-side-of-prince2. htm †¢ Van Bon, J and Verheijen, T 2006, Frameworks for IT Management, Van Haren Publishing, Amersfoort, p. 203. Viergever, N 2009, Comparing PMBOK and PRINCE2, NVi Homepage, retrieved 14 September 09 http://www. viergever. info/en/pmbokp2. aspx †¢ Webber, L 2009, IT Project Management Essentials 2009, Aspen Publishers, USA pp18- 19 – 18-22. †¢ Wideman, R 2002, Comparing PRINCE2 with PMBoK, AEW Services, Vancouver. †¢ Yeong, A 2007, The Marriage Proposal of PRINCE2 and PMBoK, AnthonyYeong. com, retrieved 15 September 09 http://www. anthonyyeong. com/The%20Marriage%20of%20PRINCE2%20and%20PMBOK. pdf APPENDIX 1 – PRINCE2 PROCESS MODEL [pic] (Source: ILX Group 2009) APPENDIX 2 – PMBOK KNOWLEDGE AREAS AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES [pic] (Source: Wideman 2002, p2) APPENDIX 3 – PRINCE2 METHODOLOGY BENEFITS FOR BUSINESSES Detailed below is a succinct ‘checklist’ of the benefits that the PRINCE2 methodology can offer to businesses when applied correctly, based on the methodology’s structure for managing projects. These benefits are experienced when PRINCE2 is applied in the absence of any other project management framework or methodology, and do not take into consideration or compare against the benefits that alternative methodologies may offer. Benefits have been taken from the Ruleworks Knowledge Management website (2009): [pic]PRINCE2 provides  a controlled start, controlled progress, a controlled close. pic]Regular reviews against plan, business case and risks. [pic]PRINCE2 provides flexible decision points. [pic]Automatic management control over deviations. [pic]Stakeholder involvement at the right times. [pic]Clear  communication channels. [pic]Project managers using PRINCE are able to establish terms of refer ence before the project start. [pic]There is a defined structure for delegation & communication. [pic]Project managers divide a project into manageable stages for more accurate planning. [pic]Resource commitment from management is part of any approval to proceed. [pic]Regular but brief management reports are available (checkpoint reports, highlight reports and exception reports). pic]Meetings with management are kept to a minimum, but at vital points in the project. [pic]End product users are able to participate in the decision-making. [pic]End users are involved in project progress. [pic]End users participate in quality checks throughout the project. [pic]User requirements are specified. [pic]PRINCE2 is Free (other then any training or support you want to pay for). [pic]PRINCE2 has a strong User Group. [pic]PRINCE2 is supported by (UK) Government and organisations such as APM and ISEB. [pic]Training courses are available from many accredited training organisations. [pic]PRINCE2 is flexible and can be applied to any kind of project.

Given the existence of corporate governance codes, based presumably on Essay

Given the existence of corporate governance codes, based presumably on some ethical considerations, among British PLCs why do we still observe crises and failures of, for example, the Northern Rock type - Essay Example In like manner, Bear Stearns an upper tier US investment bank was only rescued from the crises by the Federal Reserve Bank. (Avgouleas, 2008). In addition other major investment banks such as Merrill Lynch, Citigroup, UBS, and JPMorgan have all announced negative earnings in their last financial reports as well as plans to lay off a significant number of workers. The paper first of all looks at the regulatory environment of Northern Rock; Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to the awareness, acceptance, and management of the implications and effects of all corporate decision†making, taking particular account of community investment, human rights, and employee relations, environmental practices, and ethical conduct. (Park, 2007). According to Hsueh (2008) CSR has received much attention in recent years and more and more businesses are taking CSR to improve their corporate image. CSR activities show consideration for the environment, consumers, charity, minority groups, employee welfare, community development, women empowerment, etc. (Hsueh, 2008) For example car manufacturers across the globe are responding to the major global concern of Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission which is tremendously depleting the ozone layer and increasing the risk of cancer and other diseases that come as a result of ultraviolet light. The next section looks at the banking code in relation to corporate social responsibility. â€Å"The practice of CSR is subject to much debate and criticism. Proponents argue that there is a strong business case for CSR, in that corporations benefit in multiple ways by operating with a perspective broader and longer than their own immediate, short-term profits†. (Sacconi, 2004) â€Å"Critics argue that CSR distracts from the fundamental economic role of businesses; others argue that it is nothing more than superficial window-dressing; still others argue that it is an attempt to pre-empt the role of governments as a watchdog over

3-page case study on recent developments of Napster and its industry Essay

3-page case study on recent developments of Napster and its industry - Essay Example After a takeover offer of $2.43 million by the Private Media Group, Napsters brand and logos were acquired at bankruptcy auction by the company Roxio, Inc in 2002 and the online service was called as pressplay in 2003. At present Napster, LLC (formerly Roxio, Inc.) is an online music provider offering a variety of purchase and subscription models. The new legal online music service let user’s access music through a subscription or on a fee-per-song basis. The Napster PC-based subscription service is currently available in the U.S., UK, Canada, Germany and Japan. There are two types of subscription service offering at present Napster To Go, The portable subscription tier, which offers music fans to unlimited transfer of music to their choice of compatible MP3 players, cell phones and PDAs in addition to unlimited streaming and PC downloading for $14.95 per month. Napster also offers Napster Light, pay-per-track (no monthly subscription fee) and Napster.com, a free advertising supported website that enables full-length versions of over 3 million tracks three times to stream/listen . It had also launched NapsterLinks, which links to all of the music in Napster catalog that can be embedded into WebPages, blogs or in emails for sharing anywhere on the web. Napster also offers a mobile music service called as Napster Mobile. This service enables mobile users to search and browse Napster’s music catalog and preview, purchase and play songs on their mobile handset through an integrated music player. June 27, 2006: The availability of Napster 3.7, an updated version of its PC application featuring PowerSync, which optimized the process of transferring subscription music content to compatible MP3 players. May 12, 2006: The launch of Napster.com as a free advertising supported website that enables full-length versions of over 3 million tracks three times to

Benchmarking Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Benchmarking - Assignment Example The intention of this study is benchmarking as an improvement process which is mainly used to discover as well as incorporate the best practices in operation. It is the most preferred process which understands and identifies the elements of world class performance in work process. There are four processes in benchmarking which includes planning, analysis, action and review. There are three different types of benchmarking which includes internal, external and best practice. About 70% of the fortune 500 companies goes for benchmarking companies like Ford Motor Company had benchmarked its function of account payable against Mazda Motor. Studies have shown that top management usually does not support the benchmarking. Mangers should not be discouraged from the process of benchmarking. It provides managers to know their goals through the data. According to Betts, there are people who perceive that their individual performance is better than actually it is which is also termed as the Lake Wobegon effect. Betts have conducted a research to seek if these phenomena are also present when the employees are asked to give their views on the performance of the organization. Overestimation of performance is common in organization as well as in individuals. Individuals rate themselves better than they actually are projected with the help of an example. Around 87% of MBA students at Stanford rate their performance to be at top in comparison with their peers, about 90% of the students believed that were above average and only 10% thought they were below average. Similar is with organizations. Thus benchmarking is important in order to escape from the Lake Wobegon effect as the consequences of this performance may not result to be effective for organizations or mangers. According to Alfred North Whitehead, it is not ignorance but ignorance of ignorance which leads to the death of knowledge. The performers who are below the average and are ignorant of the fact that they are poorer performer usually are not motivated to improve (Betts, Croom & Lu, 2011, p.734). Lake Wobegon effect or benchmarking revolves around perverse dynamic. The mangers believe that they are above average performers. But in reality not all mangers are above average neither does all of them deserve to get a performance bonus. Therefore establishing an appropriate peer group and benchmarking is the only option to establish a competitive edge over the competitors (Lipman & Hall, 2008, p.33). Therefore it has been proved that overestimation of performance is common in organizations and individuals. As per a survey conducted by Betts, it has been proved that overestimation of performance is common as 75 % of the employees reported above average performance, 20 of them reported average performance and only about 5% reported to be below average performance. The people are bad at understanding the average performance basically when they are to evaluate the performance of organization in which th ey work. Therefore the consequence of over estimating is likely to bring about a change and so a greater effort should be put on benchmarking performance and also in spreading awareness in respect to benchmarked to the organization (Betts, Croom & Lu, 2011, p.740). Thus creating a need for change is must in the organization but as seen the management decision of benchmarking usually creates a resistance in the employees. Change is an important aspect and should be done on regular intervals. Manager’s use benchmarking to compare the performance of employees on some given dimension in comparison with other organizations performance so that it can be decided how successful the change has been. For example, when Xerox was

Media Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Media Plan - Assignment Example A media objective states what the planner wishes to accomplish. It is usually specified in terms of the target audience, reach, and frequency. The target audience is often defined by demographics, product usage and psychographics. Reach refers to the unduplicated proportion of an audience that is exposed to a media schedule" (Advertising Media) "To establish optimum impact of your media plan through cost-value planning, you need to select media based on which outlets (stations, billboards, newspapers, etc.) Provide the greatest effectiveness". (Media Moves) Additionally, for an effective develop of Media Plan, there are three basic issue to be considered, namely; a public relation goal, that is to determining to you focus your effort and stay on track. Others include resource to explore and the timeline. Is to make provisions of increasing awareness about Neurological disease, a view to increase more awareness about it, and to state why there is need to re-launch Moribund Health Case Health Charity. It is also aim to create ways of encouraging the general public to participate more actively than hitherto, while to add that new membership is highly welcome, with stating of the importance of this charity act. Moreover, it is also aim to notify people that the disease is curable as long as people put hands on deck and ready to contribute in no small measure. Media Route: The media channels the ought to be explores in order to reach to the targets audiences should be through press releases, newspapers articles, Radio and television programs and jingle, including seminars and speaking engagement. Evaluation of the Campaign Additionally, we need to explore some channels through which we will ensure that this campaign is successful no matter the circumstances. We can make evaluation of it success through Additional Membership: When some individuals decided to join the crusade, and when after they join continue to participate actively, with due contributions toward the success of wiping away neurological condition entirely in UK Participation of the Media: This will also signifies it success, when media continue to propagate for more participation, including special programs that will encourage other individuals and group of individuals to join for the betterment of UK people. The Rates of Sufferers Decrease: One of the reasons of re-launching of Moribund is of the needs to reduce drastically the sufferers of neurological condition in UK, if not completely wipe away. Thus when assessment is made, and found that in few times to come the rates of the sufferers is reducing, it also serve as testimony of it success. Launching Campaign: There is a need to organize event where some sufferers will be invited and thus getting them introduce to people via television stations and tell people that the sufferers are also human being, and they have future hope. Therefore they needs other people support by joining the Charity movement and contribute immensely toward that. Promoting the re-launching needs media propagation, both television and radio by organizing special programs aiming to encourage viewers to sympathies and join the charity movement. There is also need to publish leaflet and

Position summary letter(supply chain major) Essay

Position summary letter(supply chain major) - Essay Example At the Bayer health care, I would be using those skills to manage the supply chain at an international scale and ensure that the organization’s reputations and profit are taken to another level. On the other hand, at HighJump, those skills would be used to initiate and implement projects to ensure that there is effective service provision need a proper network is established between the organization and its stakeholders. Bayer healthcare (BHC) conducts research and manufactures new therapeutic products and uses scientific technology to create better living conditions for both humans and animals. Research and development is focused on cardiology, women's health care and diagnostic imaging. The company aims at filling the gaps left by other medical and pharmaceutical providers to ensure that its impact is felt by those who really require their services. The company is also supported by manufacturers in different countries who depend on its products to ensure quality and cost-eff ective of its products globally. Responsibilities include initiating activities that will ensure timely and effective supply of the manufactured products to the market place. Thus, the suitable person is expected to be updated on changing demands and improvements in the market as well as within the industry. To liaise with global supply chain systems and synergies to smoothen business deals, reduce costs and ensure that the targeted returns are attained through effectiveness. In addition, the person is expected to provide leadership and have excellent interpersonal relations so that different employee contributions can be recognized and appreciated. Thus, the manager is expected to lead by example through showing accountability both at personal and professional level. The manager will ensure effective communication with the company executives, staff and other stakeholders to the global level to ensure that information is disseminated in a timely and effective manner. My qualificatio ns that make me a suitable and competitive candidate for the position include: I am pursuing a bachelors degree in supply chain and this has equipped me with the necessary knowledge to understand procurement operations. In addition, I have a good understanding of SAP and supply chain management of the knowledge I have gained in my course. I have good leadership and interpersonal skills which I will use to enhance collaboration and ensure that there is transparency in the organization. Moreover, I have good human resource management skills which will come in handy to enhance talent acquisition and creation of international partnerships with the organization's stakeholders. I have good communication skills both oral and written which will enhance communication of both complex and simple issues with the staff and other stakeholders. High jump supply chain management software necessitates the flow of information and inventory in a cost effective and timely manner. The organizationâ€⠄¢s aim to meet market and customer needs through the provision of logistic services, packaging, healthcare, distribution and manufacturing of goods. The company enables its business partners and clients to access their services at low cost and minimizes ownership costs. The company establishes a working relationship with its clients through creating sessions to allow for interactive

Enhancing internal marketing to solve potential conflicts between Dissertation

Enhancing internal marketing to solve potential conflicts between marketers and engineers within construction firms - Dissertation Example The focus of this paper is a study of how enhancing internal marketing can help solve potential conflicts between marketers and engineers within construction firms doing business in United Arab Emirates. The purpose of the study is therefore to explore whether businesses work better when applying the internal marketing model on the construction companies working in the said area under study through improving the relationship between marketers and engineers or not for future business escalation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to acknowledge certain institutions and individuals for their valuable contribution to the successful completion of this dissertation. I’m particularly indebted to my Dissertation Adviser for guiding, supporting and encouraging me throughout my research work. Special thanks go to the University library staff for availing vast resources that added tremendous value to this dissertation. I also wish to record my special gratitude and sincere appreciation to all my co lleagues and close family members for the support and encouragement they accorded me. Lastly but not the least, I wish to register my sincere thanks to all the respondents who took part in the study. Table of Contents Page Running Head 1 Executive Summary 2 Acknowledgement 3 Table of contents 4 List of tables 7 CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 8 1.1. Overview 8 1.2. Background Information 9 1.3. Significance of the Study 10 1.4. Problem Statement and Research questions 11 1.5. Scope of the research 11 1.6. Research objectives 12 1.7. Research questions 12 1.8. Research design 12 1.9. Chapter Summary 13 CHAPTER TWO: Literature review 14 2.1. Introduction 14 2.2. The role of internal marketing and employees relationships 15 2.3. The concept of internal marketing 16 2.4. Implementation of Internal Marketing and Marketing Mix 18 2.5. Characteristics of Internal Marketing-Oriented Organization 22 2.6. Conflict between Engineers and Marketers 23 2.7. Importance of internal marketing 26 2.8. Conc lusion 30 2.9. Chapter Summary 32 CHAPTER THREE: Methodology 33 3.1. Introduction 33 3.2. Design Appropriateness 33 3.3. Area of study 34 3.4. The target population 34 3.5. Sampling technique 35 3.6. Instrumentation 36 3.7. Data Collection process 37 3.8. Statistical data analysis 38 3.9. Reliability and Validity 38 3.10. Ethical considerations 39 3.11. Chapter Summary 39 CHAPTER FOUR: Findings 40 4.1. Introduction 40 4.2. Characteristics of Respondents 40 4. 3. Descriptive Data 42 4.4. Chapter Summary 51 CHAPTER FIVE: Discussions and Implications 52 5.1. Introduction 52 5.2. Discussion of the results 52 5.3. Practical implications of this study 56 5.4. Chapter Summary 57 CHAPTER SIX: Conclusions and Recommendations 58 6.1. Introduction 58 6.2. General summary of findings 58 6.3. Limitations of the Study 60 6.4. Recommendations for future research 61 6.5. Concluding remarks 62 6.6. Personal Reflections 63 6.7. Chapter summary 63 BIBLIOGRAPHY 64 APPENDICES 66 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: 4P elements of marketing mix 20 Table 2: Characteristics of Respondents 41 Table 3: Relationship between engineers and marketers 43 Table 4: Assessment of engineering-marketing

According to Crapo Acculturation Essay Example for Free

According to Crapo Acculturation Essay According to Crapo, Acculturation is what happens when members of one culture adopt the beliefs and/or behaviors of another group. Our textbook states †Although both societies may change as a result of prolonged contact, the politically or economically less powerful of the two is likely to experience the most dramatic acculturative changes as they adopt the language and certain other cultural traits of the dominant culture† (Crapo, 2013). My heart felt so heavy when watching this 40 minute film. I could not help but feel a rush of emotions and for what those children and their parents went through. As a mother, I could not imagine someone taking my child from me and shipping them away to a boarding school. Those children were tortured, beat, and worked to death, and the girls were even sexually assaulted. Once the children were released they had no self-worth. They felt like they were unable to fit in amongst society, and most importantly with their tribe. See more: The stages of consumer buying decision process essay The film never mentioned the actual reason the American Government decided to acculturate the Native Americans into Western culture. There could be several reasons they chose to do so. The first one that comes to mind is power. They also may have done this to use them for cheap labor. Another possibility as to why the American Government could have acculturated the Native Americans is because they feared what they were capable of. Acculturating others into another culture is justifiable as long as they aren’t being forced to do so against their own will. When someone is forced into acculturating it effects them badly, in a negative way. Also, it is unfair that individuals are punished for acculturating, especially when it was against their own will to begin with. References Crapo, R. H. (2013). Cultural Anthropology. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education. Givens, S. F. (Producer). (2011). Indian school: Stories of survival [Video]. Lincoln Park, MI: American Indian Services, Inc. Retrieved from the Films On Demand database.

Analysis of The Lorax Essay Example for Free

Analysis of The Lorax Essay The story, â€Å"The Giving Tree,† is a book written by Shel Silverstein that is about the relationship between a tree and a boy. In the beginning of the story, the boy and the tree spend a lot of time together having fun. For example, they would play hide and seek, the boy would play on the branches, and the boy would play king of the forest with the leaves of the tree. The tree would be very happy because she was interacting with the boy. Throughout the story, the boy would spend less and less time with the tree. As a result, the tree would become sad. Once in a while the boy would come back, asking for certain things, and the tree would be happy to help the boy because she loved the boy so much. Through the story, â€Å"The Giving Tree,† Shel Silverstein relates a lesson of how giving is more important than taking. In the story, the boy takes advantage of the tree by taking everything that the tree has. The tree gives freely without complaining because the tree loves the boy, and wants him to be happy. In the end, all the boy wanted to do was to spend time with the tree once again. If the boy did not continuously take advantage of the tree, the boy did not have to miss, and become unhappy about the old tree that loved him so much. The tree’s love for the boy is a perfect example of what people should be like: giving freely, and unconditionally. If everyone was like the tree, there would be very little unhappiness in the world, and the world would be a better place. If countries started to give freely to one another, there would be fewer wars, there would be no more sadness and devastation, and there would be world happiness and peace. The message from Shel Silverstein is to not be like the boy who ultimately becomes unhappy by taking from the tree. In summary, Silverstein uses the story to expound on the idea that giving is more important than receiving. The story also has a slight reference to the relationship between mother and child. The tree (the mom) was willing to give anything to the boy (the son). The tree sacrifices herself in order to make the boy happy, which any mom would probably do for her son. In the beginning, the tree wanted to sacrifice its time just to play with the boy. This is similar to a parent, which sacrifices time to interact with and provide for their kids. Towards the teenage years, the tree gives up her apples so that the boy could have money. Likewise, many parents sacrifice money to have their children enjoy their teenage years: movies, cars, trips, etc. When the boy becomes an adult, he takes the branches and trunk of the tree away to build a house, and a boat. All of these examples exemplify the ways in which moms make so many sacrifices to make their children happy, but some kids just take them, run with them, and never think about how much it cost their moms. As depicted in the story, the boy never expressed any gratitude to the tree. The boy rarely went back to visit the tree, but only visited the tree to take something away for his own personal benefit. Furthermore, moms also show sadness when their children leave them for college, and adulthood. When the boy does not come back to see the tree for years at a time because of his own issues, the tree becomes sad. In short, Silverstein illustrates the interaction between mother and child by showing the selfless acts of parents and the selfishness of children. The book, â€Å"The Giving Tree,† can strongly connect to our relationship between the environment and humans. Currently, there is an evident problem of global warming. This recent dilemma is caused because of our selfish taking from the environment. The tree can strongly resemble the earth on which we live, and the boy can resemble humans. We constantly take from the Earth, and rarely give back to the environment. For example, during the 20th century, industries took advantage of the Earth without replenishing resources: deforestation, driving animals to extinction, and over-fishing. Furthermore, since global warming has become such a big problem now, we want to go back to live on the lush, non-polluted earth. Likewise, after the boy takes everything away from the tree, the boy wanted the tree to be like it was before. Ultimately, the book elucidates the way in which humans abuse the environment just like how the boy misused the tree. A question that can come to mind when reading Shel Silverstein’s story is, what is the reason for writing the story. Silverstein might have written the book for young children, but it was to teach everyone of the â€Å"give not take,† principle. Moreover, another question can be what is the reason for allowing the boy not to think about his selfishness? Perhaps Silverstein wanted to portray the fact that people are sometimes selfish. Finally, throughout the story, why is the boy referred to as a boy even though he becomes a man. Maybe Silverstein was writing in the perspective of a mother because a mom always calls his son her boy.

Vindication Of The Rights Of Woman

Vindication Of The Rights Of Woman When in 1792 the French minister for education proposed a revolutionary system of state-supported system of public education for men only, Mary Wollstonecraft was outraged. As a concrete embodiment of the French revolutions promise to redress the wrongs of past, this proposal seemed a betrayal of all that the revolution stood for. Wollstonecraft responded with A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, arguing a simple principle: that if she (woman) be not prepared by education to become the companion of man , she will stop the progress of knowledge and virtue ; for truth must be common to all or it will inefficacious with respect to its influence on general practice. Just one year earlier she had leapt to the defense of Richard Price and Thomas Paine in her Vindication of the Rights of Men against the attack of Edmund Burke in his Reflections on the Revolutions in France, she now turned her attention to the injustice that presented itself in this revolutionary program for universal educa tion in France. The context of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written as a response to Rousseaus immensely influential book Emile, which laid out Rousseaus vision of how boys should be educated. In the process Rousseau created a character; a female associate for Emile named Sophie and in the process slighted the education of women. In this essay we would explore that how successfully Wollstonecrafts Vindication of the Rights of Women is expressing the ways in which women could improve themselves and how society would benefit from this in 1790s and how affected the impact on patriarchal oppression and on the feminism as a whole. J.J Rousseau primarily claimed that we are inherently good, but we become corrupted by the evils of society. We are born good and that is our natural state. Through attending to nature we are more likely to live a life of virtue. In Emile, which is Rousseaus influential book, he was able to dramatize his ideas and reach a very wide audience. He made, it can be argue, the first comprehensive attempt to describe a system of education according to that he saw as nature. In his educational theories Rousseau attempted to preserve natures pure state. His concept of negative education allowed a child to discover for himself and to be punished by the nature he sought to defy. The tutor must not try to reason with the child or show authority. Books would not be forced on the child; at twelve Emile would hardly know what to do with a book. Positive education, or direct instruction, would only begin at approximately the age of adulthood, and then the studies would be based on the students natur al curiosity. Rousseau stressed utility, the need for teaching things with practical applications. This concept of negative education as applicable to women was totally inconceivable to Rousseau. Rousseau outlines his theories for the ideal education for the women in chapter V of Emile. He viewed womens options as entirely limited to the roles of wife and mother. What need would there be to allow her to determine for herself when nature had already physiologically dictated her destiny Rousseau demanded a reversion to primitivism in the education of women, offering minimal vocational training while insisting on her inability to reason and her inferiority to man. A womans education must be planned in relation to man.[S]he will always be in subjection to a man, and she will never be free to set her own opinion above his.(Rousseau p:176). He stresses freedom of movement and physical exertion for Emile, asserting that weak bodies contain weak minds. At the same time he discourages Sophie from too much physical activity and uses her weakness as another proof of her inferiority. The object of that cultivation is different. In the one sex it is the development of corporeal powers; in the other, that of personal charms, (Rousseau:pp.322) The power a woman have in Roussseaus poltical doctrine is dependent on the power allotted them by nature. And that power can be reduced to a simple law of nature. For nature has endowed woman with a power of stimulating mans passions in excess for mans power of satisfying those passions, and has thus made him dependent on her goodwill, and compelled him in his turn to endeavor to please her, so that she may be willing is superior strength. Is it weakness which yields to force, or is it voluntary self-surrender? This uncertainty constitutes the chief charm of the mans victory, and the woman is usually cunning enough to leave him in doubt. (Emile: 387) Rousseau emphasized the fundamentally different roles of men and women, he considers men and women complimentary to each other , women roles is to nurture and essential if men free to take on public roles and warrior and politicians. In Emile,Sophie is his sexual identity. Rousseau considers a mans union with a woman a debasement of his nature. Rousseau has a view of marriage apparently quite traditional in many respects, but he does not defend that arrangement traditionally. Rousseaus Emile makes the wife responsible for keeping the man at home and she is to maintain in him a sense of his freedom and yet at the same time use all sort of feminine charms and intelligent deceptions to make sure that he wants to stay at him, still free but also fulfilling his parental duty. Rousseau considers wifes job, simply put, is to deceive the man into staying at home by sustaining for him the illusion of his freedom, by serving his need for such a psychological state, that point is discussed by W ollstonecraft that if Sophie has to play complicated role of such a smart understanding wife, she has to know the men traits and nature, psychology of men to deal with them. Rousseau anticipates this stance and argues against it, making the case that if women seek to compete with men by defining themselves in terms of male virtues, then they will foster a state of society in which they are even more than before the servants of men. Men are better at being men than women are, Rousseau claims. Rousseau explains that Sophies education needs to be different because she is to be future mother, and women are designed by nature for motherhood. While insisting on the importance of motherhood, he stumbles on womens role as mothers. In addressing mothers in Book I of Emile, he acknowledges their primacy in the education of youth. By denying women the ability to reason he denies them the ability to raise children, which Mary Wollstonecraft later attempts to prove. Mary Wollstonecraft applauded Rousseaus scheme for Emile but deplored the neglect of Emils perfect wife, Sophie in her book The Vindication of the Rights of Woman written in response to Rousseau. Wollstonecraft seeks to find a rational explanation for the state of her sex. She questions whether women are really created for the pleasure of men. She initiates her attack on patriarchal oppression in the first page of the introduction explaining how men have created books `considering females rather as women than human creatures, have been more anxious to make them alluring mistresses than affectionate wives and rational mothers (P:11): then on Sophies garb simple as it seems, was only put in its proper order to be taken to pieces by the imagination. To this she retorts, Is this modesty ? Is this a preparation for immortality? she accuses Rousseau of depicting not a wife and sensible mother, but a pleasing mistress. She challenges Rousseaus depiction of men having superior strength and free will to do experiences. Let us then , by being allowed to take the same exercise as boys, not only during infancy , but youth, arrive at perfection of boys, that we many know how far the natural superiority of man extends. She firmly endorses the nothing of the public space in which people can compete, she says, in effect, give women access to this public space, and if we can not hold our own , then lets concede that women are not the same as men and change things accordingly. But let us first give women a chance. In the period prior to the enlightenment women were legally and socially inferior. One example of this is in crime: a man convicted of murdering his wife would be hanged, but a woman convicted of murdering her husband would, by law, be burned alive (Misenheimer,1981:p21). They were also unequal in financial and property rights, women were uneducated and taught to be pure and respectable so they could gain a husband and a home and the legal position of most women totally dependence on their husbands (Mill,1878). Its quite clear that Wollstonecrafts world did have considerable oppression and it was within this context that her attack on male dominance of society was based. She expresses how women are `legally prostituted, attacking marriage and the power men have through marriage (P:75). She attacks that women can only advance through marriage explaining how its the only security of public freedom and universal happiness (P:18). She also argues heavily against the socially constructed' position of women, which has been forced upon them by men. This is possibly her strongest argument against male dominance which conforms to the ideas of what is natural and what has been created by man; similar to the ideas of Thomas Paine, Rousseau. The idea is that the subjugation of women is unnatural and obviously goes against rational, enlightened and more important moral society. Wollstonecraft argues that if marriage is strongest institution and cement of society then men and women should be educated equally regardless of their sexes and marriage never can be held sacred till women, by being brought up with men, are prepared to be their companions rather than their mistresses. Wollstonecraft proposes that education should be accessible through national establishments as private education is confined to only elite class. She proposes her radical idea of educating girls with boys and that girls should be taught anatomy and medicine to make them rational nurses of their infants, parents and husbands. As living in mens society Wollstonecraft realized that her suggestions can cause a stir, hence the major pitch of her appeal for the rights of women might be seen as a call to extend to women the same educational opportunities as those extended to men. She cautions that she has no desire to breed a generation of independent and unattached women like herself, but that she seeks to develop wiser and more virtuous mothers. She believes that childrens characters are formed before the age of seven; hence it is very necessary to raise a child by an educated mother rather than by addle-headed mother. Wollstonecraft trying to make the male society of her time to realize that present education of women focuses far too much on attempts to please and tease men , which is no good basis either for the development of a morally responsible personality , longer lasting marriages or good mothers. And if we educate our women as equal to men, society can really benefit and if they continue to be excluded, society will suffer, it will not progress. Without stressing independence she believes that once women gain intellectual equality, they should be given political and economic equality as well. A Vindication of rights of Woman was a vital piece of work for the Feminists, however it did not really get appreciated among the women of 18th century. It is quite clear that her thoughts were revolutionary for her period and were more suited to the society of the late Nineteenth and early Twentieth century, when feminists would reintegrate Wollstonecrafts work into their movements. But Rousseaus point is still being made by those who think that a good deal of mainstream liberal feminism, for all its impressive record of social and political achievements, is demanding that women live by a standard foreign to them, that they become like men rather than developing fully as women. Those who, like Wollstonecraft, deny the classification of men and women as different, and this debate between Rousseau and Wollstonecraft is still very much alive in modern arguments about feminism. The present fierce arguments between and within various mens and womens groups indicate that the question is n ot yet off the table. These arguments manifest themselves, among other things, in modern concerns about the rising frequency of divorce and of men abandoning their families, of super-moms, of teenage pregnancies, of the need for men to be in control of the family, and so on, all of which remind us that two hundred years after Wollstonecrafts important contribution this great debate, the conversations continue with no loss of urgency.

Tatoos Essay -- Social Issues, Traumatic Tatoos

Tattoos are a form of creativity. In today’s societies, tattoos are a large part of many different cultures but all share the common body decoration. They are a way to express yourself, your religion, or your inner feelings. Tattoos are permanent colored images on the skin. In history, they are marked as the most universal type of permanent body decoration. Tattooing can have many different explanations for getting them. There are also different categories of tattoos. There are five main types of tattoos. There are abstractions, naturalistic, stylized, combination, and pledges. Abstractions are resulting from ancient designs. They consist of black ink and gray shading. Abstractions usually have the least artwork. For example, Old English letters and Chinese symbols would be considered abstractions. Naturalistic tattoos have a natural look, and contain complex details to make the design appear more realistic. Shading, depth, and perspective are used to make the image seem highly detailed. Some common naturalistic tattoos include faces of religious leaders. Stylized tattoos can appear in a huge selection of shapes, sizes, and styles. They can contain images of flowers, tigers, as well as lions and panthers, which symbolize courage and strength. Dragons and zodiacs can be customized to have a stylized look. These tattoos are quite popular because they tend to be less expensive than the other types of tattoos. Combination tattoos combine several dif ferent types of designs and styles, and include pieces of out of place images that have no consistent theme. Pledge tattoos are common in Western society. They include hearts, anchors, names, and military or regiment names. Even though these are the least expensive of all the tattoo t... ...D 13-15). In conclusion, tattoos have been accepted throughout all different societies. In the past, tattoos were seen as deviant and frowned upon because it goes against the social norm. People did not understand the significance and the creativity behind tattooing. Tattoos are a form of creativity. They are a way to express yourself, your religion, or your inner feelings. Each type has a significant meaning or reason. There are different categories and different types. There are multiple ways to get one. If you do not want permanent ones, henna is a good alternative. Even though tattooing has been around for decades, there are still risks. Tattoos can still get infected or have allergic reactions. New technology has developed to allow an unwanted tattoo to be removed. Tattoos have come a long way in society and will continue to develop throughout today’s society.

Health Essay -- essays research papers fc

Health 101   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Right now, cancer is one of the most feared diseases in the world. In the early 1990s almost 6 million new cancer cases developed and more than 4 million deaths from cancers occurred. Also more than one-fifth of all deaths were caused by cancer and it has been predicted, by the American Cancer Society, that about 33% of Americans will eventually develop this disease. This is a huge disease that is killing people all over the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many different cancers, which form on just about all parts of the body. In the US, skin cancer is the most common cancer, then prostate cancers in males, and then breast cancer in women. Leukemia is clearly the dominant cancer in children. The number one killing cancer in the world today is lung cancer, mostly caused by the smoking of cigarettes. Some researchers have stated that if Americans stopped smoking, lung-cancer deaths could disintegrate within two decades. Stomach cancer is the second most fatal cancer in males and in women, breast cancer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After taking a cancer profile test online, http://www.yourcancerrisk.harvard.edu, I was able to predict what my cancer risk would be at the age of 40 for prostate and kidney cancer. According to the information obtained, I was reluctant to see that I would have a below average risk for kidney cancer and have a much below average risk for prostate cancer. Even though it is unknown why cancer ... Health Essay -- essays research papers fc Health 101   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Right now, cancer is one of the most feared diseases in the world. In the early 1990s almost 6 million new cancer cases developed and more than 4 million deaths from cancers occurred. Also more than one-fifth of all deaths were caused by cancer and it has been predicted, by the American Cancer Society, that about 33% of Americans will eventually develop this disease. This is a huge disease that is killing people all over the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many different cancers, which form on just about all parts of the body. In the US, skin cancer is the most common cancer, then prostate cancers in males, and then breast cancer in women. Leukemia is clearly the dominant cancer in children. The number one killing cancer in the world today is lung cancer, mostly caused by the smoking of cigarettes. Some researchers have stated that if Americans stopped smoking, lung-cancer deaths could disintegrate within two decades. Stomach cancer is the second most fatal cancer in males and in women, breast cancer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After taking a cancer profile test online, http://www.yourcancerrisk.harvard.edu, I was able to predict what my cancer risk would be at the age of 40 for prostate and kidney cancer. According to the information obtained, I was reluctant to see that I would have a below average risk for kidney cancer and have a much below average risk for prostate cancer. Even though it is unknown why cancer ...

Introduction to Computer Organization and Computer Evolution Essay

In describing computers, a distinction is often made between computer architecture and computer organization. Although it is difficult to give precise definitions for these terms, a consensus exists about the general areas covered by each. Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmer or, put another way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory. Computer Organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications. Examples of organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as control signals; interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the memory technology used. As an example, it is an architectural design issue whether a computer will have a multiply instruction. It is an organizational issue whether that instruction will implemented by a special multiply unit or by a mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of the system. The organizational decision may be based on the anticipated frequency of use of the multiply instruction, the relative speed of the two approaches, and the cost and physical size of a special multiply unit. Historically, and still today, the distinction between architecture and organization has been an important one. Many computer manufacturers offer a family of computer models, all with the same architecture but with differences in organization. Consequently, the different models in the family have different price and performance characteristics. Furthermore, a particular architecture may span many years and encompass a number of different computer models, its organization changing with changing technology. A prominent example of both these phenomena is the IBM System/370 architecture. This architecture was first introduced in 1970 and included a number of models. The customer with modest requirements could buy a cheaper, slower model and, if demand increased, later upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having to abandon software that had already been developed. These newer models retained the same architecture so that the customer’s software investment  was protected. Remarkably, the System/370 architecture, with a few enhancements, has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s mainframe product line. II.Structure and Function A computer is a complex system; contemporary computers contain millions of elementary electronic components. The key is to recognize the hierarchical nature of most complex systems, including the computer. A hierarchical system is a set of interrelated subsystems, each of the latter, in turn, hierarchical in structure until we reach some lowest level of elementary subsystem. The hierarchical nature of complex systems is essential to both their design and their description. The designer need only deal with a particular level of the system at a time. At each level, the system consists of a set of components and their interrelationships. The behaviour at each level depends only on a simplified, abstracted characterization of the system at the next lower level. At each level, the designer is concerned with structure and function: †¢Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated †¢Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the structure The computer system will be described from the top down. We begin with the major components of a computer, describing their structure and function, and proceed to successively lower layers of the hierarchy. Function Both the structure and functioning of a computer are, in essence, simple. Figure 1.1 depicts the basic functions that a computer can perform. In general terms, there are only four: †¢Data processing: The computer, of course, must be able to process data. The data may take a wide variety of forms, and the range of processing requirements is broad. However, we shall see that there are only a few fundamental methods or types of data processing. †¢Data storage: It is also essential that a computer store data. Even if the computer is processing on the fly (i.e., data come in and get processed, and the results go out immediately), the computer must temporarily store at least those pieces of data that are being worked on at any given moment. Thus, there is at least a short-term data storage function. Equally important, the computer performs a long-term data storage  function. Files of data are stored on the computer for subsequent retrieval and update. †¢Data movement: The computer must be able to move data between itself and the outside world. The computer’s operating environment consists of devices that serve as either sources or destinations of data. When data are received from or delivered to a device that is directly connected to the computer, the process is known as input-output (I/O), and the device is referred to as a peripheral. When data are moved over longer distances, to or from a remote device, the process is known as data communications. †¢Control: Finally there must be control of these three functions. Ultimately, this control is exercised by the individual(s) who provides the computer with instructions. Within the computer, a control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response to those instructions. FIGURE 1.1 A FUNCTIONAL VIEW OF THE COMPUTER At this general level of discussion, the number of possible operations that can be performed is few. Figure 1.2 depicts the four possible types of operations. The computer can function as a data movement device (Figure 1.2a), simply transferring data from one peripheral or communications line to another. It can also function as a data storage device (Figure 1.2b), with data transferred from the external environment to computer storage (read) and vice versa (write). The final two diagrams show operations involving data processing, on data either in storage (Figure 1.2c) or en route between storage and the external environment Structure Figure 1.3 is the simplest possible depiction of a computer. The computer  interacts in some fashion with its external environment. In general, all of its linkages to the external environment can be classified as peripheral devices or communication lines. There are four main structural components (Figure 1.4): †¢Central Processing Unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions; often simple referred to as processor †¢Main memory: Stores data †¢I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment †¢System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O FIGURE 1.3 THE COMPUTER FIGURE 1.4 THE COMPUTER: TOP-LEVEL STRUCTURE There may be one or more of each of the aforementioned components. Traditionally, there has been just a single CPU. In recent years, there has been increasing use of multiple processors in a single computer. The most interesting and in some ways the most complex component is the CPU; its structure is depicted in Figure 1.5. Its major structural components are: †¢Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer †¢Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing functions †¢Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU †¢CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers FIGURE 1.5 THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) Finally, there are several approaches to the implementation of the control unit; one common approach is a microprogrammed implementation. In essence, a microprogrammed control unit operates by executing microinstructions that define the functionality of the control unit. The structure of the control unit can be depicted as in Figure 1.6. FIGURE 1.6 THE CONTROL UNIT III.Importance of Computer Organization and Architecture The computer lies at the heart of computing. Without it most of the computing  disciplines today would be a branch of the theoretical mathematics. To be a professional in any field of computing today, one should not regard the computer as just a black box that executes programs by magic. All students of computing should acquire some understanding and appreciation of a computer system’s functional components, their characteristics, their performance, and their interactions. There are practical implications as well. Students need to understand computer architecture in order to structure a program so that it runs more efficiently on a real machine. In selecting a system to use, they should be able to understand the tradeoff among various components, such as CPU clock speed vs. memory size. [Reported by the Joint Task Force on Computing Curricula of the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Computer Society and ACM (Association for Computing Machinery)]. IV.Computer Evolution A brief history of computers is interesting and also serves the purpose of providing an overview of computer structure and function. A consideration of the need for balanced utilization of computer resources provides a context that is useful. The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes ENIAC: The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer), designed by and constructed under the supervision of John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, was the world’s first general-purpose electronic digital computer. The project was a response to U.S. wartime needs during World War II. The Army’s Ballistics Research Laboratory (BRL), an agency responsible for developing range and trajectory tables for new weapons, was having difficulty supplying these tables accurately and within a reasonable time frame. Mauchly, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania, and Eckert, one of his graduate students, proposed to build a general-purpose computer using vacuum tubes for the BRL’s application. In 1943, the Army accepted this proposal, and work began on the ENIAC. The resulting machine was enormous, weighing 30 tons, occupying 1500 squre feet of floor space and containing more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. When operating, it consumed 140 kilowatts of power. It was also substantially faster than any electromechanical computer, being capable of 5000 additions per second. The ENIAC was a decimal rather  than a binary machine. That is, numbers were represented in decimal form and arithmetic was performed in the decimal system. Its memory consisted of 20 â€Å"accumulators,† each capable of holding a 10-digit decimal number. A ring of 10 vacuum tubes represented each digit. At any time, only one vacuum tube was in the ON state, representing one of the 10 digits. The major drawback of the ENIAC was that it had to be programmed manually by setting switches and plugging and unplugging cables. The ENIAC was completed in 1946, too late to be used in the war effort. Instead, its first task was to perform a series of complex calculations that were us ed to help determine the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb. The use of the ENIAC for a purpose other than that for which it was built demonstrated its general-purpose nature. The ENIAC continued to operate under BRL management until 1955, when it was disassembled. The von Neumann Machine: The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was extremely tedious. The programming process could be facilitated if the program could be represented in a form suitable for storing in memory alongside the data. Then, a computer could get its instructions by reading them from memory, and a program could be set or altered by setting the values of a portion of memory. This idea, known as the stored-program concept, is usually attributed to the ENIAC designers, most notably the mathematician John von Neumann, who was a consultant on the ENIAC project. Alan Turing developed the idea at about the same time. The first publication of the idea was in a 1945 proposal by von Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). In 1946, von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new stored-program computer, referred to as the IAS computer, at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. The IAS computer, although not completed until 1952, is the prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers. Figure 1.7 shows the general structure of the IAS computer. It consists of: †¢A main memory, which stores both data and instructions †¢An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary data †¢A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be executed †¢Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit FIGURE 1.7 STRUCTURE OF THE IAS COMPUTER Commercial Computers The 1950s saw the birth of the computer industry with two companies, Sperry and IBM, dominating the marketplace. UNIVAC I: In 1947, Eckert and Mauchly formed the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation to manufacture computers commercially. Their first successful machine was the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), which was commissioned by the Bureau of the Census for the 1950 calculations. The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation became part of the UNIVAC division of Sperry-Rand Corporation, which went on to build a series of successor machines. The UNIVAC I was the first successful commercial computer. It was intended, as the name implies, for both scientific and commercial applications. The first paper describing the system listed matrix algebraic computations, statistical problems, premium billings for a life insurance company, and logistical problems as a sample of the tasks it could perform. UNIVAC II: The UNIVAC II which had greater memory capacity and higher performance than the UNIVAC I, was delivered in the late 1950s and illustrates several trends that have remained characteristic of the computer industry. First, advances in technology allow companies to continue to build larger, more powerful computers. Second, each company tries to make its new machines upward compatible with the older machines. This means that the programs written for the older machines can be executed on the new machine. This strategy is adopted in the hopes of retaining the customer base; that is, when a customer decides to buy a newer machine, he or she is likely to get it from the same company to avoid losing the investment in programs. The UNIVAC division also began development of the 1100 series of computers, which was to be its major source of revenue. This series illustrates a distinction that existed at one time. In 1955, IBM, which stands for International Business Machines, introduced the companion 702 product, which had a number of hardware features that suited it to business applications. These were the first of a long series of 700/7000 computers that established IBM as the overwhelmingly dominant computer manufacturer. The Second Generation: Transistors The first major change in the electronic computer came with the replacement of the vacuum tube by the transistor. The transistor is smaller, cheaper, and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube but can be used in the same way  as a vacuum tube to construct computers. Unlike the vacuum tube, which requires wires, metal plates, a glass capsule, and a vacuum, the transistor is a solid-state device, made from silicon. The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 and by the 1950s had launched an electronic revolution. The National Cash Registers (NCR) and, more successfully, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) were the front-runners with some small transistor machines. IBM followed shortly with the 7000 series. The second generation is noteworthy also for the appearance of the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). DEC was founded in 1957 and, in that year, delivered its first computer, the PDP-1 (Programmed Data Processor). This computer and this company began the minicomputer phenomenon that would become so prominent in the third generation. The IBM 7094: From the introduction of the 700 series in 1952 to the introduction of the last member of the 7000 series in 1964, this IBM product line underwent an evolution that is typical of computer products. Successive members of the product line show increased performance, increased capacity, and/or lower cost. Table 1.1 illustrates this trend. The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit A single, self-contained transistor is called a discrete component. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, electronic equipment was composed largely of discrete components–transistors, resistors, capacitors, and so on. Discrete components were manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards, which were then installed in computers, oscilloscopes, and other electronic equipment. Early second-generation computer contained about 10,000 transistors. This figure grew to the hundreds of thousands, making the manufacture of newer, more powerful machines increasingly difficult. In 1958 came the achievement that revolutionized electronics and started the era of microelectronics: the invention of the integrated circuit. Microelectronics: Microelectronics means, literally, â€Å"small electronics.† Since the beginnings of digital electronics and the computer industry, there has been a persistent and consistent trend toward the reduction in size of digital electronic circuits. The basic elements of a digital computer, as we know, must perform storage, movement, processing, and control functions. Only two fundamental types of components are required: gates and memory  cells. A gate is a device that implements a simple Boolean or logical function. Such devices are called gates because they control data flow in much the same way that canal gates do. The memory cell is a device that can store one bit of data; that is, the device can be in one of two stable states at any time. By interconnecting large numbers of these fundamental devices, we can construct a computer. We can relate this to our four basic functions as follows: †¢Data storage: Provided by memory cells. †¢Data processing: Provided by gates. †¢Data movement: The paths between components are used to move data from memory to memory and from memory through gates to memory. †¢Control: The paths between components can carry control signals. When the control signal is ON, the gate performs its function on the data inputs and produces a data output. Similarly, the memory cell will store the bit that is on its input lead when the WRITE control signal is ON and will place the bit that is in the cell on its output lead when the READ control signal is ON. Thus, a computer consists of gates, memory cells, and interconnections among these elements. The integrated circuit exploits the fact that such components as transistors, resistors, and conductors can be fabricated from a semiconductor such as silicon. It is merely an extension of the solid-state art to fabricate an entire circuit in a tiny piece of silicon rather than assemble discrete components made from separate pieces of silicon into the same circuit. Many transistors can be produced at the same time on a single wafer of silicon. Equally important, these transistors can be connected with a process of metallization to form circuits. Figure 1.8 depicts the key concepts in an integrated circuit. A thin wafer of silicon is divided into a matrix of small areas, each a few millimetres square. The identical circuit pattern is fabricated in each area, and the wafer is broken up into chips. Each chip consists of many gates and/or memory cells plus a number of input and output attachment points. This chip is then packaged in housing that protects it and provides pins for attachment to devices beyond the chip. A number of these packages can then be interconnected on a printed circuit board to produce larger and more complex circuits. As time went on, it became possible to pack more and more components on the  same chip. This growth in density is illustrated in Figure 1.9; it is one of the most remarkable technological trends ever recorded. This figure reflects the famous Moore’s law, which was propounded by Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, in 1965. Moore observed that the number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year and correctly predicted that this pace would continue into the near future. FIGURE 1.9 GROWTH IN CPU TRANSISTOR COUNT The consequences of Moore’s law are profound: 1.The cost of a chip has remained virtually unchanged during this period of rapid growth in density. This means that the cost of computer logic and memory circuitry has fallen at a dramatic rate. 2.Because logic and memory elements are placed closer together on more densely packed chips, the electrical path length is shortened, increasing operating speed. 3.The computer becomes smaller, making it more convenient to place in a variety of environments. 4.There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements. 5.The interconnections on the integrated circuit are much more reliable than solder connections. With more circuitry on each chip, there are fewer interchip connections. IBM System/360: By 1964, IBM had a firm grip on the computer market with its 7000 series of machines. In that year, IBM announced the System/360, a new family of computer products. Although the announcement itself was no surprise, it contained some unpleasant news for current IBM customers: the 360 product line was incompatible with older IBM machines. Thus, the transition to the 360 would be difficult for the current customer base. This was a bold step by IBM, but one IBM felt was necessary to break out of some of the constraints of the 7000 architecture and to produce a system capable of evolving with the new integrated circuit technology. The 360 was the success of the decade and cemented IBM as the overwhelmingly dominant computer vendor, with a market share above 70%. The System/360 was the industry’s first planned family of computers. The family covered a wide range of performance and cost. Table 1.2 indicates some of the key characteristics of the various models in 1965. The concept of a family of compatible computers was both novel and extremely successful. The characteristics of a family are as follows: †¢Similar or identical instruction set: The program that executes on one machine will also execute on any other. †¢Similar or identical operating system: The same basic operating system is available for all family members. †¢Increasing speed: the rate of instruction execution increases in going from lower to higher family members. †¢Increasing number of I/O ports: In going from lower to higher family members. †¢Increasing memory size: In going from lower to higher family members. †¢Increasing cost: In going from lower to higher family members. DEC PDP-8: Another momentous first shipment occurred: PDP-8 from DEC. At a time when the average computer required an air-conditioned room, the PDP-8 (dubbed a minicomputer by the industry) was small enough that it could be placed on top of a lab bench or be built into other equipment. It could not do everything the mainframe could, but at $16,000, it was cheap enough for each lab technician to have one. The low cost and small size of the PDP-8 enabled another manufacturer to purchase a PDP-8 and integrate it into a total system for resale. These other manufacturers came to be known as original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), and the OEM market became and remains a major segment of the computer marketplace. As DEC’s official history puts it, the PDP-8 â€Å"established the concept of minicomputers, leading the way to a multibillion dollar industry.† Later Generations Beyond the third generation there is less general agreement on defining generations of computers. Table 1.3 suggests that there have been a number of later generations, based on advances in integrated circuit technology. GenerationApproximate DatesTechnologyTypical Speed (operations per  second) With the rapid pace of technology, the high rate of introduction of new products and the importance of software and communications as well as hardware, the classification by generation becomes less clear and less meaningful. In this section, we mention two of the most important of these results. Semiconductor Memory: The first application of integrated circuit technology to computers was construction of the processor (the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit) out of integrated circuit chips. But it was also found that this same technology could be used to construct memories. In the 1950s and 1960s, most computer memory was constructed from tiny rings of ferromagnetic material, each about a sixteenth of an inch in diameter. These rings were strung up on grids of fine wires suspended on small screens inside the computer. Magnetized one way, a ring (called a core) represented a one; magnetized the other way, it stood for a zero. It was expensive, bulky, and used destructive readout. Then, in 1970, Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory. This chip, about the size of a single core, could hold 256 bits of memory. It was non-destructive and much faster than core. It took only 70 billionths of a second to read a bit. However, the cost per bit was higher than for that of core. In 1974, a seminal event occurred: The price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit of core memory. Following this, there has been a continuing and rapid decline in memory cost accompanied by a corresponding increase in physical memory density. Since 1970, semiconductor memory has been through 11 generations: 1K, 4K, 16K, 64K, 256K, 1M, 4M, 16M, 64M, 256M, and, as of this writing, 1G bits on a single chip. Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied by declining cost per bit and declining access time. Microprocessors: Just as the density of elements on memory chips has  continued to rise, so has the density of elements on processor chips. As time went on, more and more elements were placed on each chip, so that fewer and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer processor. A breakthrough was achieved in 1971, when Intel developed its 4004. The 4004 was the first chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip: the microprocessor was born. The 4004 can add two 4-bit numbers and can multiply only be repeated addition. By today’s standards, the 4004 is hopelessly primitive, but it marked the beginning of a continuing evolution of microprocessor capability and power.